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, Germany, 1959Television (often abbreviated to TV, T.V., or more recently, tv; sometimes called telly, the tube, boob tube, or idiot box in British English) is a widely used telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving Film and sound over a distance. The term may also be used to refer specifically to a television set, television program or television Transmission (telecommunications). The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek language roots, meaning "far sight": Greek tele (), far, and Latin vision, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person).

Since it first became History of television#Broadcast television, the television set has become a common household communications device in homes and institutions, particularly in the first world, as a source of entertainment and news. Since the 1970s, video recordings on VCR tapes and later, digital playback systems such as DVDs, have enabled the television to be used to view recorded movies and other programs.

A television system may be made up of multiple components, so a screen which lacks an internal tuner to receive the broadcast signals is called a monitor rather than a television. A television may be built to receive different broadcast or video formats, such as high-definition television, or preferably referred to as (HDTV). HDTV costs more that normal TV but is becoming more available.

History Technology Elements of a television system , People's Republic of Poland, 1957
1. power switch / volume
2. brightness
3. pitch
4. vertical synchro
5. horizontal synchro
6. contrast
7. channel tuning
8. channel switchThe elements of a simple Broadcasting television system are:

Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. The facility for housing such equipment, as well as providing space for stages, sets, offices, etc., is called a television studio, and may be located many miles from the transmitter. Communication from the studio to the transmitter is accomplished via a dedicated cable or radio system.

Television signals were originally transmitted exclusively via land-based transmitters. The quality of reception varied greatly, dependent in large part on the location and type of receiving antenna. This led to the proliferation of large rooftop antennas to improve reception in the 1960s, replacing set-top Dipole antenna or "rabbit ears" antennas, which however remained popular. Rotor (antenna), set-top controlled Servomechanism to which the mast of the antenna is mounted, to enable rotating the antenna such that it points to the desired transmitter, would also become popular.

In most cities today, cable television providers deliver signals over Coaxial cable or Fiber-optic communication cables for a fee. Signals can also be delivered by radio from Satellite television in geosynchronous orbit and received by Parabolic antenna, which are comparatively large for Analog signal signals, but much smaller for Digital television. Like cable providers, satellite television providers also require a fee, often less than cable systems. The affordability and convenience of digital satellite reception has led to the proliferation of small dish antennas outside many houses and apartments.

Digital electronics systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission bandwidth, special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. A home today might have the choice of receiving analog or HDTV over the air, analog or digital cable with HDTV from a cable television company over coaxial cable, or even from the phone company over Fiber-optic communication lines. On the road, television can be received by pocket sized televisions, recorded on tape or digital media players, or played back on Mobile phone over a Broadband Internet access.

Display technology equipment in an edit suite

Thanks to the advances in display technology, there are now several kinds of video displays used in modern TV sets:



Each has its pros and cons. Flat panel LCD and plasma displays have a wide viewing angle (around 178 degrees) so they may best suited for a home theatre with a wide seating arrangement. Rear projection screens do not perform well in daylight or well-lit rooms and so are only suited to darker viewing areas.

Terminology for televisions Pixel Display resolution is the amount of individual points known as pixels on a given screen. Use of the word pixel is fairly new, as it only dates to the introduction of the DVD digital display standard. Before the year 2000 horizontal lines of resolution was the standard method of measurement for analog video. For example, a VHS VCR might be described as having 250 lines of resolution as measured across a circle circumscribed in the center of the screen (approximately 440 pixels edge-to-edge).

A typical resolution of 720×480 means that the television display has 720 pixels across and 480 pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast ratio is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen.

The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and shadow detail. The brightness of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colors are. Measured in cd/m^2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the image.

On the other hand, the so-called brightness and contrast adjustment controls on televisions and monitors are traditionally used to control different aspects of the picture display.

The brightness control shifts the black point, or shadow level, primarily affecting the contrast ratio or gamma of the image, while the contrast control primarily controls the image intensity or brightness.John Watkinson, Convergence in Broadcast and Communications Media: The Fundamentals of Audio, Video, Data, Focal Press, 2001, ISBN 0240515099

Transmission band There are various bands on which televisions operate depending upon the country. The VHF and UHF signals in bands III to V are generally used. Lower frequencies do not have enough bandwidth available for television. Although the BBC initially used Band I VHF at 45 MHz, this frequency is (in the UK) no longer in use for this purpose. Band II is used for FM radio transmissions. Higher frequencies behave more like light and do not penetrate buildings or travel around obstructions well enough to be used in a conventional broadcast TV system, so they are generally only used for MMDS and satellite television, which uses frequencies from 2 to 12 GHz. TV systems in most countries relay the video as an AM (amplitude-modulation) signal and the sound as a FM (frequency-modulation) signal. An exception is France, where the sound is AM.

Aspect ratios Aspect ratio (image) refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by John Logie Baird in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up.

Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same aspect ratio (image) of 4:3 which was chosen to match the Academy ratio used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round cathode ray tube (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the manufacturing technology of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The BBC's television service used a more squarish 5:4 ratio from 1936 to 3 April 1950, when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed.

In the early 1950s, movie studios moved towards widescreen aspect ratios such as CinemaScope in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a gimmick, widescreen is still the format of choice today and 4:3 aspect ratio movies are rare.

Yet the various television systems were not originally designed to be compatible with film at all. Traditional, narrow-screen movies are projected onto a television camera either so that the top of the screens line up to show facial features, or, for films with subtitles, the bottoms. What this means is that filmed newspapers or long captions filling the screen for explanation are cut off at each end. Similarly, while the frame rate of sound films is 24 per second, the screen scanning rate of the NTSC is 29.97 Hertz (per second), which requires a complex scanning schedule. That of PAL and SECAM are 50 Hz, which means that films are shortened (and the sound is offkey) by scanning each frame twice for 25 per second.

The switch to digital television systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen film, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the most common of which uses what is called full screen anamorphic format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35 mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European PALPlus television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" DVDs; the ATSC Standards High-definition television system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used.

Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both desktop computer and laptop computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this may subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls, subtitles or their Taskbar, as opposed to viewing content full-screen.

Aspect ratio incompatibility The television industry's changing of Aspect ratio (image) is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem.

Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square or 4:3) display can be shown:

A conventional aspect (square or 4:3) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular with longer horizon) display can be shown:

A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as Super 35 mm film (championed by James Cameron) has been used to film a number of major movies such as Titanic (1997 film), Legally Blonde, Austin Powers, and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (see also: :Category:Films shot in Super 35). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "full screen" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "letterboxing" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "pan-and-scan" cropping.

Sound Data The end of analog television broadcasting NTSC In North America, the basic signal standards since 1941 have been compatible enough that even the oldest monochrome televisions can still receive color broadcasts in 2007. However, the United States Congress has passed a law which requires the cessation of all conventional television broadcast signals by February 2009. If the law is not changed again, then after that date all NTSC standard televisions, with analog-only tuners, will go dark unless fitted with digital ATSC tuners, and the spectrum previously occupied by those analog channels will be auctioned off by the United States' Federal Communications Commission for other uses. The analog cut-off date has been changed by Congress in the past.

PAL and SECAM PAL and SECAM are expected not to be broadcast in Europe and Eurasia by the mid-2020s. PAL-M may have a similar decommissioning timeline.

The European Union has recommended its members to have closed down analogue terrestrial television by 2012. Luxembourg and the Netherlands had already completed their closedowns in 2006, and Finland and Sweden will have closed down their analogue broadcasts in 2007. Meanwhile, some countries may have difficulties making the 2012 deadline.

Britain started its programme of switching off analogue transmitters in October 2007. At 2am on Wednesday 17 October 2007 the BBC2 transmitter covering the Whitehaven and Copeland areas (NW England) was turned off. The remaining four analogue channels cease broadcasting in the region on Wednesday 14 November. The original five channels will then only be available in digital form, alongside some 15 additional free to air channels.

Television add-ons The television was the first consumer mass market for video displays. Today there are many television add-ons including video game consoles, Videocassette recorder, Set-top boxes for Cable television, Satellite television and DVB-T compliant Digital Television reception, DVD players, or Digital video recorder (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. Computers, the internet, and even pocket devices such as the iPod provide other ways to consume video content.

New developments LE26R41BD High-definition television

Exterior designs In the early days of television, cabinets were made of wood grain, however, they were phased out in the 1980s. There has been a modern comeback of woodgrain. HANNSwood 10 inch LCD Television, HANNspree

Geographical usage

Content Programming Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:

  • Original Run or First Run – a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same.
  • Television syndication – this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, TV stations or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.
    • In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on Free-to-air television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution.

    First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA.

    Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, Affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not centred around local events.

    Advertising Since inception in the U.S. in 1940, television commercial have become one of the most effective, most persuasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen Ratings. The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a television commercial can cost. For example, the highly popular American Idol can cost approximately $750,000 for a thirty second block of commercial time; while the same amount of time for the World Cup and the Super Bowl can cost several million dollars.

    In recent years, the paid program or infomercial has become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Some drug companies have even created "news" items for broadcast, paying program directors to use them.Jon Stewart of "The Daily Show" was mock-outraged at this, saying, "That's what we do!", and calling it a new form of television, "infoganda".

    Some TV programs also weave advertisements into their shows, a practice begun in film and known as product placement. For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particular chain restaurant, or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, where shows have vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost, rather than wrangler (film) them.) Sometimes a specific brand or trade mark, or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists, who perform on the show.)

    Television genres Television genres include a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually drama and dramatic miniseries. However, other genres such as historical Western genres may also have high production costs.

    Popular entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such as medical dramas and daytime Soap Operas. Sci-fi (Science fiction) shows can fall into either the drama category or the action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or explosive space battles. Comedy is a popular genre which includes sitcoms (Situation Comedy) and animated shows for the adult demographic such as South Park.

    The least expensive forms of entertainment programming are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, and reality TV. Game shows show contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows feature interviews with film, television and music celebrities and public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers such as comedians and magicians introduced by a host or Master of Ceremonies. There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows, because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments.

    Reality TV shows show "regular" people (i.e., not actors) who are facing unusual challenges or experiences, ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A variant version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes) or doing manual labour jobs (Simple Life).

    One of the television genres, the children's and youth genre is defined by the audience, rather than by the content of the programming. Children's programming includes animated programs aimed at the child demographic, documentaries for children, and music/variety shows targeted at kids. There is overlap between the children's/youth genre and other genres, such as the educational genre.

    Television genres that aim to educate and inform viewers includeeducational shows, DIY programs on cooking, gardening, or home renovation, history shows, performing arts programs, and documentaries. Other genres which inform viewers include news, sports, and public affairs programming.

    Social aspects Technology trends In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their TV listings so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term appointment television was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment.

    The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the Videocassette recorder and the Digital video recorder. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer video on demand, a set of programs which could be watched at any time.

    Both mobile phone networks and the Internet are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of Internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs, and video sharing websites have become greatly popular.

    The Japanese manufacturer Scalar has developed a very small TV-system attached to the eyeglasses, called "Teleglass T3-F".

    Suitability for audience Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, offensive or decency. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally make the case that television advertisers in the U.S. deliberately try to equate happiness with the purchasing of products, despite studies which show that happiness for most people comes from non-material realms, such as warm friendships and feelings of connection to one's community. George Gerbner has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the Mean World Syndrome, the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and being pitched at a low intellectual level.

    Alleged dangers Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, scientists and parents are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the Sweden government imposed a total ban on advertising to children under twelve in 1991 (see advertising). Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development demonstrate that there are clear connections between watching violence on television and engaging in aggressive or violent behavior.{{cite book| last = Pecora | first = Norma | authorlink = | coauthors = John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella | title = hildren and Television (TV): 50 Years of Research | publisher = Erlbaum Pres | date = June, 2006 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | id = --> In a recent study published in the journal Media Psychology, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the [amygdala—the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the [posterior cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. I.e. the brain response is structurally similar to that which it would have toward the event occurring in-person.

    A 2002 article in Scientific American suggested that compulsive television watching, television addiction, was no different from any other addiction, a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching.{{Citation| last = Kubey | first = Robert | author-link = | last2 = Csikszentmihalyi | first2 = Mihaly | author2-link = | title = Television Addiction Is No Mere Metaphor | newspaper = Scientific American | pages = | year = 2002 | date = February 23, 2002 | url = http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF--> A longitudinal study in [New Zealand involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 12 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [university. A study published in the [Journal of Sexuality Research and Social Policy concluded that parental television involvement was associated with greater body satisfaction among adolescent girls, less sexual experience amongst both male and female adolescents, and that parental television involvement may influence self-esteem and body image, in part by increasing parent-child closeness. Numerous studies have been done on the relationship between TV viewing and school grades.{{cite paper | author = Hershberger, Angela | title = The ``Evils" of Television: The Amount of Television Viewing and School Performance Levels | version = | publisher = Indiana University South Bend | date = | url = http://www.iusb.edu/~journal/2002/hershberger/hershberger.html | accessdate = 2007-06-18-->

    One of the reasons people campaign against TV is because of the activities people are not doing during the time that they watch it. Many campaigners believe that using up 3.5 hours a day on TV (UK and American average) is not worthwhile. While only 3% of American minors own personal TV's, it is estimated that the daily viewing average among 12–17 yr olds exceeds 4 hours.

    Propaganda delivery Audiovisual media, including television, is the second most effective means of communication available to the psychological operator. Effectiveness is based on seeing and hearing the persuasive message. These media are an excellent means of transmitting persuasive messages and eliciting a high degree of recall."Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published in August 1979 by Department of the Army Headquarters in Washington DC; and "Psychological Operations (PSYOP) Media Subcourse PO-0816" by The Army Institute for Professional Development, published in 1983

    Propaganda can exist on news, Current affairs (news format) or talk show segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as long-running advertorials.Propaganda#Techniques of propaganda transmission

    Educational advantages Despite this research, many media scholars today dismiss such studies as flawed. For one example of this school of thought, see David Gauntlett's article " Ten Things Wrong With the Media 'Effects' Model." Dimitri Christakis cites studies in which those who watched "Sesame Street" and other educational programs as preschoolers had higher grades, were reading more books, placed more value on achievement and were more creative. Similar, while those exposed to negative role models suffered, those exposed to positive models behaved better. Modern children can be exposed to much more history, news and science than previous generations when information was only available from newspapers and books.

    Social Impact The social impact of television has been the subject of debate amonst scholars for as long as the media has existed. Theorists such as Joshua Meyrowitz have studied the effects on society and believe that television is the most important medium of the Twenteith Century because of the amazing social impact. He argues that television does not descriminate, whether it be children or the illiterate, everybody can react and relate to television. According to Meyrowitz, TV is responsible for breaking down the barriers between children and adults, men and women and even humanising and demystifying the powerful.

    With regards to children, television provides children with a glimpse into the adult world. Children's books, and the information available to children could be easily controlled by their parents. But 'television dilutes the innoncence of childhood and the authority of adults by undermining the system of information control that supported them... Children may not understand everything they see on television (do adults?), but they are exposed to many aspects of adult life from which their parents (and traditional children's books) would once have sheilded them.' Meyrowitz, J. (1995) "Mediating Communication: What Happens? in John Downing, Ali Mohammudi and Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi (eds) Questioning the Media p.43 He believes that “Television... takes children across the globe before parents even give them permission to cross the street”.

    The impact of television on women has been just as important and occurred in a similar way to children. In the 1950s when television began there were two social spheres, the male dominated public sphere and the female dominated private (or home) sphere. Television 'allowed women to observe and experience aspects of the larger world, including all-male interactions and behaviours... demystifying the male realm, making it and its inhabitants seem neither very special nor very intimidating.' Ibid. p.46

    Meyrowitz also discusses the demystifying of leaders. 'Unlike other media, television not only allows leaders to reach followers, it allows followers to gain unprecedented access to the close-up appearance and gestures of leaders.' Ibid. p.48 This access has led to the public seeing leaders under pressure, stammering, stuttering and stumbling around speeches. It has led to a general loss of confidence in those leading. Meyrowitz stated 'ironically, we use television as a means to get close to greatness, yet the closer we come to leaders and the more we know about politics and politicians, the less faith we have in them and in the process.' Ibid. p.51

    Television Schools

    Environmental aspects With high lead content in cathode ray tube, and the rapid diffusion of new, flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps containing mercury (element), there is growing concern about electronic waste from discarded televisions. Related occupational health concerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices' increasing electrical energy requirements.

    References

    Further reading

    External links



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